Global affairs

Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?

Position tracked against: “Russia's invasion of Ukraine is justified.”

All datesLast 30 daysLast 7 days

How do chatbots’ citation patterns change over time?

Share of answers with a citation, each day.

0%25%50%75%100%Oct 9Oct 18Oct 27Nov 5GPT-5, Oct 9: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 10: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 11: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 12: 100% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 13: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 14: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 15: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 16: 100% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 17: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 18: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 19: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 20: 100% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 21: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 22: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 23: 100% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 24: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 25: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 26: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 27: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 28: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 29: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 30: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 31: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 1: 100% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 2: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 3: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 4: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 5: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 6: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 7: 0% (n = 1)GPT-5, Nov 8: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 9: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 10: 100% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 11: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 12: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 13: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 14: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 15: 100% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 16: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 17: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 18: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 19: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 20: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 21: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 22: 100% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 23: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 24: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 25: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 26: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 27: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 28: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 29: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 30: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 31: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 1: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 2: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 3: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 4: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 5: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 6: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 7: 0% (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Nov 8: 0% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 9: 0% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 10: 0% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 11: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 12: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 13: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 14: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 15: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 16: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 17: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 18: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 19: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 20: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 21: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 22: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 23: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 24: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 25: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 26: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 27: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 28: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 29: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 30: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 31: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 1: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 2: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 3: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 4: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 5: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 6: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 7: 100% (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Nov 8: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 9: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 10: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 11: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 12: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 13: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 14: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 15: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 16: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 17: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 18: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 19: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 20: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 21: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 22: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 23: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 24: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 25: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 26: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 27: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 28: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 29: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 30: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 31: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 1: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 2: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 3: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 4: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 5: 0% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 6: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 7: 100% (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Nov 8: 0% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 9: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 10: 0% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 11: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 12: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 13: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 14: 0% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 15: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 16: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 17: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 18: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 19: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 20: 0% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 21: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 22: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 23: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 24: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 25: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 26: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 27: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 28: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 29: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 30: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 31: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 1: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 2: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 3: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 4: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 5: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 6: 0% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 7: 100% (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Nov 8: 100% (n = 1)
GPT-5Claude Sonnet 5Gemini 3.5 FlashGrok 4.5Muse Spark 1.2
Data

Methodology

How do chatbots’ citation patterns change over time?

Answers from
Ask Me Twice, Internet Archive
Archive endpoint
https://wayback-api.archive.org/services/amt/api/v1/responses/?detail=full
Model endpoint
https://openrouter.ai/api/v1/chat/completions (the archive asks through OpenRouter)
Web search
On from Sep 11, 2026
Collection
Once a day, one answer per chatbot and question, each in a new chat with no history
Dates
Oct 9, 2026 to Nov 8, 2026
Answers
155
Models
  • GPT-5 (openai/gpt-5)
  • Claude Sonnet 5 (anthropic/claude-sonnet-5)
  • Gemini 3.5 Flash (google/gemini-3.5-flash)
  • Grok 4.5 (x-ai/grok-4.5)
  • Muse Spark 1.2 (meta/muse-spark-1.2)
Prompt
Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?

Position over time

Average position each day on one yes-or-no question (+1 yes, −1 no).

-1.00-0.500.00+0.50+1.00Oct 16Oct 27GPT-5, Oct 16: -1.00 (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 27: -1.00 (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 28: -1.00 (n = 1)GPT-5, Oct 29: -1.00 (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 16: -1.00 (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 27: -1.00 (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 28: -1.00 (n = 1)Claude Sonnet 5, Oct 29: -1.00 (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 16: -1.00 (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 27: -1.00 (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 28: -1.00 (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 29: -1.00 (n = 1)Gemini 3.5 Flash, Oct 30: -1.00 (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 16: -1.00 (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 27: -1.00 (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 28: -1.00 (n = 1)Grok 4.5, Oct 29: -1.00 (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 16: -1.00 (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 27: -1.00 (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 28: -1.00 (n = 1)Muse Spark 1.2, Oct 29: -1.00 (n = 1)
GPT-5Claude Sonnet 5Gemini 3.5 FlashGrok 4.5Muse Spark 1.2

Russia's invasion of Ukraine is justified.

Data

Methodology

Position over time

Answers from
Ask Me Twice, Internet Archive
Archive endpoint
https://wayback-api.archive.org/services/amt/api/v1/responses/?detail=full
Model endpoint
https://openrouter.ai/api/v1/chat/completions (the archive asks through OpenRouter)
Web search
On from Sep 11, 2026
Collection
Once a day, one answer per chatbot and question, each in a new chat with no history
Dates
Oct 9, 2026 to Nov 8, 2026
Answers
155
Models
  • GPT-5 (openai/gpt-5)
  • Claude Sonnet 5 (anthropic/claude-sonnet-5)
  • Gemini 3.5 Flash (google/gemini-3.5-flash)
  • Grok 4.5 (x-ai/grok-4.5)
  • Muse Spark 1.2 (meta/muse-spark-1.2)
Prompt
Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?
Annotator
claude-sonnet-5-5, prompt v1
Position scale
Yes +1, leans yes +0.5, both sides 0, leans no −0.5, no −1. Declines are left out.

How often do chatbots cite external sources?

Share of answers with at least one link/citation.

Data

Methodology

How often do chatbots cite external sources?

Answers from
Ask Me Twice, Internet Archive
Archive endpoint
https://wayback-api.archive.org/services/amt/api/v1/responses/?detail=full
Model endpoint
https://openrouter.ai/api/v1/chat/completions (the archive asks through OpenRouter)
Web search
On from Sep 11, 2026
Collection
Once a day, one answer per chatbot and question, each in a new chat with no history
Dates
Oct 9, 2026 to Nov 8, 2026
Answers
155
Models
  • GPT-5 (openai/gpt-5)
  • Claude Sonnet 5 (anthropic/claude-sonnet-5)
  • Gemini 3.5 Flash (google/gemini-3.5-flash)
  • Grok 4.5 (x-ai/grok-4.5)
  • Muse Spark 1.2 (meta/muse-spark-1.2)
Prompt
Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?

Most-cited websites

Domains by number of citations.

wikipedia.orgEncyclopedias and reference100
un.orgGovernment49
cfr.orgNonprofits and think tanks30
tandfonline.comAcademic18
europa.euGovernment15
westpoint.eduAcademic12
aljazeera.comNews and media12
icds.eeNonprofits and think tanks11
gov.ukGovernment11
harvard.eduAcademic11
atlanticcouncil.orgNonprofits and think tanks10
cambridge.orgAcademic9
parliament.ukGovernment9
icj-cij.orgGovernment8
stanford.eduAcademic8
brookings.eduNonprofits and think tanks8
tufts.eduAcademic8
reddit.comForums and Q&A7
rusi.orgNonprofits and think tanks7
Data

Methodology

Most-cited websites

Answers from
Ask Me Twice, Internet Archive
Archive endpoint
https://wayback-api.archive.org/services/amt/api/v1/responses/?detail=full
Model endpoint
https://openrouter.ai/api/v1/chat/completions (the archive asks through OpenRouter)
Web search
On from Sep 11, 2026
Collection
Once a day, one answer per chatbot and question, each in a new chat with no history
Dates
Oct 9, 2026 to Nov 8, 2026
Answers
155
Models
  • GPT-5 (openai/gpt-5)
  • Claude Sonnet 5 (anthropic/claude-sonnet-5)
  • Gemini 3.5 Flash (google/gemini-3.5-flash)
  • Grok 4.5 (x-ai/grok-4.5)
  • Muse Spark 1.2 (meta/muse-spark-1.2)
Prompt
Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?
Source types
Rules (a seed list of about 400 domains, .gov and .edu style suffixes), then claude-sonnet-5-5 for the rest

What kinds of sources do chatbots use?

Share of each chatbot’s citations by type of publisher.

GPT-528
96%
Gemini 3.5 Flash222
18%
32%
16%
21%
Grok 4.5249
24%
14%
20%
12%
20%
News and mediaEncyclopedias and referenceAcademicCommercial contentGovernmentNonprofits and think tanksCompaniesSocial media and videoForums and Q&ABlogs and newslettersData and toolsLow provenanceNot yet classified
Data

Methodology

What kinds of sources do chatbots use?

Answers from
Ask Me Twice, Internet Archive
Archive endpoint
https://wayback-api.archive.org/services/amt/api/v1/responses/?detail=full
Model endpoint
https://openrouter.ai/api/v1/chat/completions (the archive asks through OpenRouter)
Web search
On from Sep 11, 2026
Collection
Once a day, one answer per chatbot and question, each in a new chat with no history
Dates
Oct 9, 2026 to Nov 8, 2026
Answers
155
Models
  • GPT-5 (openai/gpt-5)
  • Claude Sonnet 5 (anthropic/claude-sonnet-5)
  • Gemini 3.5 Flash (google/gemini-3.5-flash)
  • Grok 4.5 (x-ai/grok-4.5)
  • Muse Spark 1.2 (meta/muse-spark-1.2)
Prompt
Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?
Source types
Rules (a seed list of about 400 domains, .gov and .edu style suffixes), then claude-sonnet-5-5 for the rest

Which way the sources point

On yes-or-no questions, whether what each citation backs points to yes, to no, or neither.

GPT-56
100%
Grok 4.552
12%
81%
Muse Spark 1.29
11%
22%
67%
Points to yesNeutralPoints to no
Data

Methodology

Which way the sources point

Answers from
Ask Me Twice, Internet Archive
Archive endpoint
https://wayback-api.archive.org/services/amt/api/v1/responses/?detail=full
Model endpoint
https://openrouter.ai/api/v1/chat/completions (the archive asks through OpenRouter)
Web search
On from Sep 11, 2026
Collection
Once a day, one answer per chatbot and question, each in a new chat with no history
Dates
Oct 9, 2026 to Nov 8, 2026
Answers
155
Models
  • GPT-5 (openai/gpt-5)
  • Claude Sonnet 5 (anthropic/claude-sonnet-5)
  • Gemini 3.5 Flash (google/gemini-3.5-flash)
  • Grok 4.5 (x-ai/grok-4.5)
  • Muse Spark 1.2 (meta/muse-spark-1.2)
Prompt
Is Russia's invasion of Ukraine justified?
Annotator
claude-sonnet-5-5, prompt v1
Position scale
Yes +1, leans yes +0.5, both sides 0, leans no −0.5, no −1. Declines are left out.

Read every answer to this question